Learning Theories of Psychology

Ivan Pavlov:


1. What was Pavlov actually studying when he developed his theory of classical conditioning?

Pavlov, and developed his theory of classical conditioning, was actually studying the salivation of dogs and the salivary glands produced when meat was presented through a food dispenser.

2. Explain (in detail) how Pavlov's experiment was conducted.

Pavlov noticed that the food dispenser with the meat powder made a noise when he delivered it to the dog. Therefore, he realized the dog associated the noise with the food before the food was delivered to the dog. (Pavlov gave the dog a natural stimulus (food) and the dog had a natural response (salivation). Then, Pavlov produced a neutral stimulus (bell noise) and the dog had orientation, but no salivation. After the conditioning, Pavlov produced a paired natural and neutral stimulus, and the dogs had a natural response. Because of this experiment, the dog then had a natural response and salivated when Pavlov rang the bell).

3. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Pavlov's experiment.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus (like the bell) which has been learned and therefore produces a conditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that produces an unlearned response without previous conditioning.

Conditioned response from Pavlov's experiment (CR): A reaction that has been learned because of previous conditioning.


4. Explain what extinction means in relation to classical conditioning.

Extinction refers to the loss of the Conditioned Response tendency. It occurs when there has been Conditioned Stimulus without the Unconditioned Stimulus (example: the bell was not rang for a lot of time and therefore the dog stopped reacting to the sound of the bell afterwards).

5. Explain what stimulus generalization means in relation to classical conditioning.

Stimulus generalization is when a reaction to a specific stimulus is connected to other stimuli and occurs to the other stimuli.


6. Explain what stimulus discrimination means in relation to classical conditioning.

Stimulus discrimination refers to the learning response to one stimulus and not the other one.

7. Explain at least two limitations of this experiment.

First of all, one limitation was that only two dogs were used in Pavlov’s experiment. As a result, not all types of dogs may have the same conditioning ability. This experiment was only proved in dogs and not in humans. Moreover, the dogs needed to undergo surgical procedures, which were dangerous and painful.

8. Explain what Pavlov theorized about how we learn.

Pavlov theorized that when you pair a natural stimulus with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus is learned, or conditioned. Consequently, this proves that the natural stimulus produces a reflexive response on the neutral stimulus. This is a way of learning.

John B. Watson:

1. Explain (in detail) how Watson's "Little Albert" study was conducted.

Watson conditioned a baby named “Little Albert”. He showed a white rat to Little Albert and afterwards slammed two metal pipes together behind Little Albert’s head. This made Little Albert cry because the metal pipes produced a loud and annoying noise. Watson continued slamming the metal pipes every time Little Albert and the white rat were together, and therefore, Little Albert always cried when the white rat appeared. Prior to the noise, Little Albert liked the rat. Then, the fear generalized (stimulus generalization) because Little Albert became afraid of people or animals with white beards/hair (because the rat had furry, white hair).

2. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Watson's study.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): The white, furry rat.

Unconditioned stimulus (US): The two metal pipes slamming (noise).

Conditioned response (CR): The baby Albert cried every time he saw something or someone with white, furry hair.


3. Explain at least two limitations of this study.

One limitation of Watson’s experiment was that Little Albert was hurt and was scared by the two metal pipes. During those times, it was not illegal to do that to a baby. Nowadays, it would be illegal and this experiment is seen as immoral and unethical. Moreover, Little Albert suffered from a rat phobia because animals evoked him fear. It is said that Little Albert’s mom didn’t even know they were doing that to her 8 month baby.

4. Explain Watson's law of frequency.

The law of frequency states that when 2 things or events are connected, the stronger will be that association.

5. Explain Watson's law of recency.

Watson’s law of recency refers to the response that has most recently occurred subsequent a stimulus, which is associated with that stimulus.


6. Explain the basic assumptions of behaviorism according to Watson.

According to Watson’s behaviorism, all behavior can be reduced to their basic components.

Works Cited

http://psychology.about.com/od/classicalconditioning/a/pavlovs-dogs.htm

http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/conditioning.html

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/psychbeginnings.html

Articles about Sleep - Summaries

High School Students With A Delayed School Start Time Sleep Longer, Report Less Daytime Sleepiness – Summary

On June 9, 2008, it was reported in a research at SLEEP (the 22nd Annual Meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies) that students who started school with a delayed time benefited from this experiment. It was proven that on average, 259 students slept 7.03 hours, from 10:52 p.m. to 6:12 a.m. These students confirmed they had sleep disorders, which decreased their level of concentration at school.

After the trial of the 40 minute delay in the school start, it was discovered that high school students slept 33 minutes more than the average sleep time. Instead of starting school at 7:35 a.m, students started school at 8:15 a.m. With this experiment, students reported they were more focused during school.

To conclude, it was confirmed that high school students who slept 33 minutes more than their average sleep time presented notable changes. Students actually took 83% advantage of the extra time for sleep. It is proven that teenagers must sleep 9 hours and this trial contributed to this statement.

In my opinion, I would certainly take advantage of those 33 minutes. Those minutes, like the article stated, would undoubtedly increase the sleep time of the teenagers and therefore would bring beneficial results.

Delayed School Start Time Associated With Improvements in Adolescent Behaviors – Summary

According to a report in Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, a delay in school time improves the adolescent’s awareness, demeanor, and healthiness.

The studies affirm that when a child enters puberty, the teenager has an unstable cycle of sleeping, waking every two hours. The study also states that teenager sleep needs do not decrease radically. The most advantageous sleep quantities stay the same, with 9 ¼ hours per night.

A group of specialists performed a trial in which 201 students from grades 9-12 started school 30 minutes after. The results proved that students felt more alert and motivated and attendance increased as well. The percentage of students sleeping less than seven hours decreased to 79.4% and the percentage of student sleeping at least eight hours increased from 16.4% to 54.7%. Additionally, the percentage of unhappiness in students decreased from 65.8% to 45%. The percentage of irritated students decreased from 84% to 62.6%. Lastly, in health issues, the number decreased from 15.3% to 4.6%.

To wrap up, the specialists confirmed that sleep was extremely favorable to teenagers in their day-to-day moods, alertness, and fitness, developing a positive demeanor.

I believe the research done by this group of scientists contains a lot of valid information. The information proves that sleeping does not only decrease sleep deprivation in teenagers, but likewise sleeping would improve numerous aspects of a person. Sleeping can make a huge difference in a person’s mood.

Why Does Lack of Sleep Affect Us Differently? Study Hints It May Be in Our Genes – Summary

The medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology posted a significant question: why do other people function better with less hours of sleep?

After an intensive research, scientists discovered that some people suffer of a gene variant similar to narcolepsy, “a sleep disorder that causes excessive daytime sleepiness”. Just because a person suffers from these symptoms does not mean that that persons suffers from narcolepsy. Actually, 12% to 38% of the people with this gene are considered healthy sleepers instead of being diagnosed with a sleep disorder.

In the experiment, scientists compared 92 healthy adults with 37 adults that contained narcolepsy but were considered healthy sleepers. At first, the participants could sleep for 10 hours, but then they were sleep deprived when they were only allowed to sleep 4 hours. Afterwards, their sleep quality and ability to resist sleepiness were recorded. It was discovered that those with the gene variant woke up 4 times per night while does who didn’t contain the gene variant just woke up twice. The people without the gene variant also spent more time during deep sleep, stages 3 & 4. However, there was no difference whatsoever in their memory and ability to resist sleep in daytime.

I have always wondered why other people can resist better through the day with less hours of sleep. This article answers my doubts. Gene variation has a lot to do with someone’s resistance. The experiment used in this case was very precise and contributed to the hypotheses. If someone contains the gene variation of narcolepsy, that person will suffer from an unbalanced sleep through the night, which will cause sleep deprivation. 

Works Cited

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101025161023.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080609071202.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100705190532.htm

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