Thorndike's and Skinner's Theories

Edward Thorndike:

1. Explain Thorndike's puzzle-box experiment.

Thorndike used a puzzle-box to carry out his experiment. Instead of using a monkey and a latch like in Watson’s experiment, he replaced the money with a cat and the latch with a foot-pedal. Through trial and error, the cat was supposed to step on the switch to open the cage. Eventually, after unsuccessful trials, the cat discovered the switch and was freed faster.

2. Explain Thorndike's "Law of Effect".

Thorndike’s theory of “Law of Effect” consisted of the repeated behavior of an animal that resulted in a pleasing effect (reinforcement/reward: food). The cat, after various phases of errors, could realize the function of the switch and therefore associated the stimulus (cage) with the response (stepping on the switch). Every time the response occurred faster because the cat’s actions brought a positive consequence.

3. Explain Thorndike's "Law of Exercise".

This theory states that the satisfying results of an event are more likely to produce a pattern and a response to the same stimulus. It states that with practice of associations, behavior is strongly established when there are frequent links of the response and the stimulus.

B.F. Skinner:

1. Explain Skinner's concept of Operant Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning refers to the behavior alterations because of a series of reinforcements or punishments. The everyday behavior of a person is acquired because of this learning method.

2. What does reinforcement always do?

Reinforcement creates positive consequences within the behavior of a person. It supports good behavior by offering incentives.

3. What does a punishment always do?

Punishment diminishes a certain negative behavior. It penalizes an action so the person does not repeat the same behavior again.

4. Explain the difference between "positive" and "negative" as they are used in operant conditioning.

“Positive”, in the operant conditioning, refers to a GIVEN reward that will increase the probability of the positive behavior again. On the contrary, a “negative reinforcer” refers to the REMOVAL of something, often causing an unpleasant stimulus. A “negative reinforcer” is used in order to stop a negative behavior.

Works Cited

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/689639/Thorndikes-law-of-exercise

http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch08_animals/thorndikes_puzzle_box.html

http://tip.psychology.org/skinner.html

http://www.scienceclarified.com/Qu-Ro/Reinforcement-Positive-and-Negative.html

Learning Theories of Psychology

Ivan Pavlov:


1. What was Pavlov actually studying when he developed his theory of classical conditioning?

Pavlov, and developed his theory of classical conditioning, was actually studying the salivation of dogs and the salivary glands produced when meat was presented through a food dispenser.

2. Explain (in detail) how Pavlov's experiment was conducted.

Pavlov noticed that the food dispenser with the meat powder made a noise when he delivered it to the dog. Therefore, he realized the dog associated the noise with the food before the food was delivered to the dog. (Pavlov gave the dog a natural stimulus (food) and the dog had a natural response (salivation). Then, Pavlov produced a neutral stimulus (bell noise) and the dog had orientation, but no salivation. After the conditioning, Pavlov produced a paired natural and neutral stimulus, and the dogs had a natural response. Because of this experiment, the dog then had a natural response and salivated when Pavlov rang the bell).

3. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Pavlov's experiment.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus (like the bell) which has been learned and therefore produces a conditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that produces an unlearned response without previous conditioning.

Conditioned response from Pavlov's experiment (CR): A reaction that has been learned because of previous conditioning.


4. Explain what extinction means in relation to classical conditioning.

Extinction refers to the loss of the Conditioned Response tendency. It occurs when there has been Conditioned Stimulus without the Unconditioned Stimulus (example: the bell was not rang for a lot of time and therefore the dog stopped reacting to the sound of the bell afterwards).

5. Explain what stimulus generalization means in relation to classical conditioning.

Stimulus generalization is when a reaction to a specific stimulus is connected to other stimuli and occurs to the other stimuli.


6. Explain what stimulus discrimination means in relation to classical conditioning.

Stimulus discrimination refers to the learning response to one stimulus and not the other one.

7. Explain at least two limitations of this experiment.

First of all, one limitation was that only two dogs were used in Pavlov’s experiment. As a result, not all types of dogs may have the same conditioning ability. This experiment was only proved in dogs and not in humans. Moreover, the dogs needed to undergo surgical procedures, which were dangerous and painful.

8. Explain what Pavlov theorized about how we learn.

Pavlov theorized that when you pair a natural stimulus with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus is learned, or conditioned. Consequently, this proves that the natural stimulus produces a reflexive response on the neutral stimulus. This is a way of learning.

John B. Watson:

1. Explain (in detail) how Watson's "Little Albert" study was conducted.

Watson conditioned a baby named “Little Albert”. He showed a white rat to Little Albert and afterwards slammed two metal pipes together behind Little Albert’s head. This made Little Albert cry because the metal pipes produced a loud and annoying noise. Watson continued slamming the metal pipes every time Little Albert and the white rat were together, and therefore, Little Albert always cried when the white rat appeared. Prior to the noise, Little Albert liked the rat. Then, the fear generalized (stimulus generalization) because Little Albert became afraid of people or animals with white beards/hair (because the rat had furry, white hair).

2. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Watson's study.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): The white, furry rat.

Unconditioned stimulus (US): The two metal pipes slamming (noise).

Conditioned response (CR): The baby Albert cried every time he saw something or someone with white, furry hair.


3. Explain at least two limitations of this study.

One limitation of Watson’s experiment was that Little Albert was hurt and was scared by the two metal pipes. During those times, it was not illegal to do that to a baby. Nowadays, it would be illegal and this experiment is seen as immoral and unethical. Moreover, Little Albert suffered from a rat phobia because animals evoked him fear. It is said that Little Albert’s mom didn’t even know they were doing that to her 8 month baby.

4. Explain Watson's law of frequency.

The law of frequency states that when 2 things or events are connected, the stronger will be that association.

5. Explain Watson's law of recency.

Watson’s law of recency refers to the response that has most recently occurred subsequent a stimulus, which is associated with that stimulus.


6. Explain the basic assumptions of behaviorism according to Watson.

According to Watson’s behaviorism, all behavior can be reduced to their basic components.

Works Cited

http://psychology.about.com/od/classicalconditioning/a/pavlovs-dogs.htm

http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/conditioning.html

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/psychbeginnings.html

Articles about Sleep - Summaries

High School Students With A Delayed School Start Time Sleep Longer, Report Less Daytime Sleepiness – Summary

On June 9, 2008, it was reported in a research at SLEEP (the 22nd Annual Meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies) that students who started school with a delayed time benefited from this experiment. It was proven that on average, 259 students slept 7.03 hours, from 10:52 p.m. to 6:12 a.m. These students confirmed they had sleep disorders, which decreased their level of concentration at school.

After the trial of the 40 minute delay in the school start, it was discovered that high school students slept 33 minutes more than the average sleep time. Instead of starting school at 7:35 a.m, students started school at 8:15 a.m. With this experiment, students reported they were more focused during school.

To conclude, it was confirmed that high school students who slept 33 minutes more than their average sleep time presented notable changes. Students actually took 83% advantage of the extra time for sleep. It is proven that teenagers must sleep 9 hours and this trial contributed to this statement.

In my opinion, I would certainly take advantage of those 33 minutes. Those minutes, like the article stated, would undoubtedly increase the sleep time of the teenagers and therefore would bring beneficial results.

Delayed School Start Time Associated With Improvements in Adolescent Behaviors – Summary

According to a report in Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, a delay in school time improves the adolescent’s awareness, demeanor, and healthiness.

The studies affirm that when a child enters puberty, the teenager has an unstable cycle of sleeping, waking every two hours. The study also states that teenager sleep needs do not decrease radically. The most advantageous sleep quantities stay the same, with 9 ¼ hours per night.

A group of specialists performed a trial in which 201 students from grades 9-12 started school 30 minutes after. The results proved that students felt more alert and motivated and attendance increased as well. The percentage of students sleeping less than seven hours decreased to 79.4% and the percentage of student sleeping at least eight hours increased from 16.4% to 54.7%. Additionally, the percentage of unhappiness in students decreased from 65.8% to 45%. The percentage of irritated students decreased from 84% to 62.6%. Lastly, in health issues, the number decreased from 15.3% to 4.6%.

To wrap up, the specialists confirmed that sleep was extremely favorable to teenagers in their day-to-day moods, alertness, and fitness, developing a positive demeanor.

I believe the research done by this group of scientists contains a lot of valid information. The information proves that sleeping does not only decrease sleep deprivation in teenagers, but likewise sleeping would improve numerous aspects of a person. Sleeping can make a huge difference in a person’s mood.

Why Does Lack of Sleep Affect Us Differently? Study Hints It May Be in Our Genes – Summary

The medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology posted a significant question: why do other people function better with less hours of sleep?

After an intensive research, scientists discovered that some people suffer of a gene variant similar to narcolepsy, “a sleep disorder that causes excessive daytime sleepiness”. Just because a person suffers from these symptoms does not mean that that persons suffers from narcolepsy. Actually, 12% to 38% of the people with this gene are considered healthy sleepers instead of being diagnosed with a sleep disorder.

In the experiment, scientists compared 92 healthy adults with 37 adults that contained narcolepsy but were considered healthy sleepers. At first, the participants could sleep for 10 hours, but then they were sleep deprived when they were only allowed to sleep 4 hours. Afterwards, their sleep quality and ability to resist sleepiness were recorded. It was discovered that those with the gene variant woke up 4 times per night while does who didn’t contain the gene variant just woke up twice. The people without the gene variant also spent more time during deep sleep, stages 3 & 4. However, there was no difference whatsoever in their memory and ability to resist sleep in daytime.

I have always wondered why other people can resist better through the day with less hours of sleep. This article answers my doubts. Gene variation has a lot to do with someone’s resistance. The experiment used in this case was very precise and contributed to the hypotheses. If someone contains the gene variation of narcolepsy, that person will suffer from an unbalanced sleep through the night, which will cause sleep deprivation. 

Works Cited

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101025161023.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080609071202.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100705190532.htm

Photos

Google

Inside the Teenage Brain

     Our family, professional psychologists or scientists, and other people around us try to decipher what’s going on inside of our teenage brains. But the reality is that even we, the teenagers, don’t have a clue about it.

     Primarily, the perception our parents have about our strange behavior is that we "were invaded by another body”. When they stated this in the video, I thought this was a really humorous notion. Our parents were teenagers once, so I cannot comprehend why they have silly suggestions about our conduct! We are simply teenagers.

     Before trespassing into the dangerous world of adolescence, we have an overproduction of cells in the frontal lobe of the brain. By the age of 6, our brains are already 95% of its adult size.

     The brain is the central core of our emotions and actions. During our puberty years, the frontal lobe of the brain is developing, improving, and using its muscles by practice and experience. This is the only way to increment our brain capacity and avoid the death of cells.

     But how can we avoid brain damage? Deep sleep is the only way to rejuvenate our brain cells. You need at least 8 hours to rest your brain from all your angst. I believe sleeping early does not only depend on us, but it includes other factors as well. To sleep early would mean sacrificing certain things. In my experience, when I sleep late one night and then sleep a little earlier the next night, I suffer of more fatigue because I haven’t fully recovered. My brain is constantly analyzing everything, and therefore, that explains my stress problems.

     On the other hand, an amusing part of being a teen is that we are brave enough to take hazardous risks, even though if we are more susceptible in this point of life.

Works Cited of Images

http://dadintheheadlights.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/zits.gif?w=525&h=255

http://www.coverbrowser.com/image/bestselling-comics-2007/310-1.jpg

http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/myl/llog/ZitsUp.gif

http://www.goliniel.com/photo/images/hangingbike.gif

How Our Brains Work

1. What does the word "hemisphere" refer to when talking about the brain?

 When talking about the brain, the brain contains cerebral hemispheres. The brain is divided exactly through the middle, creating the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

2. What are the major differences between the left and right sides of the brain?

The left hemisphere focuses in the logical thought. It manages: concepts, structure, obedience, regulations, time sequences, mathematics, categorizing, logic, rationality, and deductive reasoning, information, fine points, meanings, scheduling and objectives, terms, output and efficiency, science and technology, constancy, extraversion, physical aptitude, and the right side of the body.

On the other hand, the right hemisphere concentrates on insight, sentiments and sympathy, sensations, distraction, envisages, originality, color, spatial consciousness, first impressions, rhythm, naturalness and impetuosity, physical sanity, risk taking, flexibility and assortment, education by practice, interactions, spirituality, cooperation and sports, timidity, humor, motor skills, and the left side of the body.

3. What is the corpus callosum?

The corpus callosum is a thick band of 200 through 250 million nerve fibers that facilitate the communication between the left and right hemispheres.

4. Explain the study performed by Paul Broca in which he discovered "Broca's Area."

In the 1860’s, Paul Broca, a neurologist, discerned that people with damage on their left hemisphere contained language and speech tribulations. He completed studies on the brains of aphasic patients, people who cannot speak. He performed surgeries on the brain of a patient called Tan, and subsequently realized he had an injury in his left frontal lobe, and therefore could not talk. This theory was named “Broca’s Area” because of Paul Broca.

5. Explain the study conducted by Roger Sperry in regard to "split brain."

Roger Sperry was an eminent neuropsychologist who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine with his “split-brain” studies. He analyzed patients who had a split brain with the corpus callosum cut off. The patients would face a screen, which contained various objects behind it. The patient would observe the middle of the screen. Afterwards, on the left side of the person’s image field, a statement would emerge. The non-verbal right hemisphere would receive the information, and therefore the patient could not identify what they saw. Then, Sperry would tell his patient to grab an object, using his left hand, which corresponded with the previous statement that had appeared in the screen. Indeed, the left hand of the patient could grab the matching object for the reason that the right hemisphere manages all of the movement of the left side of the body. With this valid information, Sperry recognized that the right side of the brain cannot process verbal stimuli, while the left side does control the reading and speech.

6. Explain the study conducted by Carl Wernicke which led to the discovery of Wernicke's Area."

Carl Wernicke studied a patient who had suffered a stroke in 1873. The man who suffered the stroke was capable of speaking and was unimpaired in his hearing, but he could hardly comprehend what was said to him or written. After his death, Wernicke discovered a lesion in the parietal region of his patient’s left hemisphere. He came to the conclusion that the left hemisphere was involved in speech comprehension because this region is near the auditory region of the brain. Therefore, he named this syndrome as “Wernicke’s Area”.

7. Which lobe is most responsible for vision?

   The occipital lobe is responsible for the vision in a person.

8. Which lobe is most responsible for hearing and language?

   The lobe responsible for the hearing and language of a person is the temporal lobe.

9. Which lobe is most responsible for performing math calculations?

   The frontal lobe is most responsible for performing math calculations.

10. Which lobe is most responsible for judgment, reasoning and impulse

control?

   In addition, the frontal lobe is also responsible for judgment, reasoning, and impulse control.

 

Works Cited

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/split.html

http://nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/split-brain/background.html

http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/652/Carl-Wernicke.html

Phineas Gage

1. Who was Phineas Gage?

He is the most well-known individual who survived a harsh brain damage. For the most part, the doctors discovered the correlation between personality and the front parts of the brain because of the 25-year old patient Phineas Gage. Previous to his accident, he worked as the foreman of a railway construction site arranging the bed of the Rutland and Burlington Rail Road.

2. Describe the event which caused his injury.

Phineas Gage was working on the railway construction site close to Cavendish, Vermont. He was charging a hole drilled in a rock with the finality of blasting. The hole contained fuel and powder. Phineas Gage got distracted by looking at his men working in the pit. He therefore dropped the iron on the charge, and consequently, the tamping iron produced an explosion. The three foot long and fourteen pound tamping rod propelled into his cheek bone and through his head, damaging his frontal lobe and landing 100 feet behind him.

3. What happened to him as a result of his injuries?

When he arrived at the hospital, the doctor reported that Phineas Gage was cognizant, had a normal heartbeat, and a regular reaction of his pupils. He did not feel pain and still possessed the ability to reason. Nevertheless, after ten weeks from recovering, the doctor noticed a dramatic and negative change in his demeanor and character of Gage. Everyone affirmed that Gage was a reliable, dependable, and popular person. After to the accident, he became the opposite. He never recovered his old-self again after the hurtful injury. The loss of his frontal cortex caused a loss in his social inhibitions. He became offensive and irreverent. Eleven years later, he had epileptic seizures and died a year later.

4. What did we learn about the brain based on this case study?

From Phineas Gage’s case study, we can learn that the frontal cortex is involved in the personality of an individual. The frontal cortex plays a huge role in the social cognition and executive function of a person. Gage did not lose a precise mental skill, like the ability to follow directions or to speak. Nonetheless, his behavior and ethical sense were distorted. Psychologists now recognize that parts of the cortex are concerned in general mental processes.

5. Explain the idea of brain localization.

Different parts of the brain have the duty to control certain functions. This is known as brain localization. The brain carries out occupations in order to manage specific parts of the human system. This includes: speech, understanding, control of voluntary movement, vision, etc. Each fraction and division of the brain performs activities, but not all the parts direct the same function.

6. Explain the concept of brain lateralization.

The human brain is a corresponding organ. The brain is structured in two halves, which are called cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres are similar in some ways. The meaning of brain lateralization refers to the two halves of the human brain which are unrelated. Both cerebral hemispheres contain functional specializations. The neural mechanisms are controlled in one fraction of the brain, while other activities are functioned in the other fraction.

Works Cited

Information

http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/morris2/chapter2/medialib/lecture/gage.html

http://www.deakin.edu.au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/Pgstory.php

http://www.damninteresting.com/phineas-gages-brain-injury

http://www.nvcc.edu/home/elanthier/methods/case-study-samples.htm

 Images

http://cache.boston.com/bonzaifba/Globe_Photo/2009/07/22/gage__1248246520_8970.jpg
http://bafree.net/arabneuropsych/laterality7.gif
http://joeltalks.com/web_images/phineas_gage_mcmillan.jpg

Personality in The Ambit of Nature and Nurture

     “An individual's self-concept is the core of his personality. It affects every aspect of human behavior: the ability to learn, the capacity to grow and change. A strong, positive self-image is the best possible preparation for success in life (Dr. Brothers).” In the excerpt above, Dr. Joyce Brothers stated the concept of personality. Personality impacts and manages every aspect of a person’s life. But what causes personality within a human being? ‘Nature vs. nurture’ is a psychological term that questions whether heredity or the environment influences the human behavior and personality. Numerous people argue that their character traits are innate; while others argument that they gain their character traits by learning. Subsequently, the majority of the population has heard the term ‘personality’ and can depict a person’s personality. However, what most do not know is that personality is one of the most researched aspects of psychology today. So, what’s personality? In my own words, personality is a broad theme that describes one’s character traits and qualities that differentiate each individual from the rest of the people. I firmly believe that both genetics and the environment are involved in a person’s personality theory and development.

     To begin with, personality is one of the many mysteries in this universe. Personality is an individual’s characteristic pattern of feeling, acting, and thinking. It includes two other terms: a state and a trait. A state is momentary change in one’s personality. On the other hand, a trait is a permanent feature in one’s personality. Someone’s personality may vary depending on the stimulus he/her has. The beliefs of personality, in psychoanalytic psychology, include the theories of how people develop; it determines the structure of personality, the nature of mental illness, and how to treat mental and emotional problems. Scientists consider that personality consists of conscious motives and observable behaviors, which are determined by genetic or biological mechanisms.

     Moreover, what research has been done in order to prove whether personality is genetic or environmental? Family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies have been the most common research methodologies currently. Trait theorists presume that some personality variations are present at birth in a person; however, it has a lot of foregone conclusion. Plato once argued that the souls of men were made of diverse metals. He used symbolism to state that people’s personalities express and represent their inner natures. Plato therefore implicated that behaviors are innate and that they are not influenced by the environment. Psychologists interview an individual’s likes, dislikes, beliefs, goals, and values and then factor analyze their responses to prove which aspects have correlations. At the end, both genetics and the environment will always have a correspondence to influence the personality of a human being.

     Finally, the field of psychology has concluded that personality is equally caused for the motives of genetics and the environment. Genes affect proteins and proteins function by affecting the brain, causing the effects on behavior. The environmental influences are as strong and as comparable to the genetic influences. Nevertheless, the studies of environmental effects prove that there are individual differences in response. This implicates that each individual reacts in their own mode depending on the past experiences they’ve had. Each person has its own system to convalescence from the detrimental effects of psychosocial adversity. Personality involves polygenic characteristics; meaning that a person’s behavior is influenced by multiple genes and situations.

     In conclusion, personality is a characteristic pattern of thinking, acting, and feeling that is maneuvered by both biological and environmental factors. Personality encapsulates a person’s responses to their circumstances and their inner souls. As Dr. Joyce stated, personality is the foundation of the existence of a human being. It alters a person’s life for the reasons of nature and environment. Nature influences personality as much as nurture does. Every person has genes that affect their personal thinking, which subsequently affect their actions and emotional status in a certain environment.

 

Works Cited

 

http://thinkexist.com/quotation/an_individual-s_self concept_is_the_core_of_his/147493.html

http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/2236/Genetics-Environment-HOW-DO-GENES-INFLUENCE-BEHAVIORAND-ATTITUDES.html

http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/intro.html

http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/experiments-in-philosophy/200804/whats-innate-and-whats-not-and-should-we-care

http://socyberty.com/psychology/where-does-personality-come-from/

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/persintro.html

http://philipschaefer.com/2008/05/19/does-personality-come-from-nature-or-nurture/

http://web.mst.edu/~pfyc212b/personal.htm

Images

http://blog.oup.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/07/nettle_personality.jpg

http://nowsourcing.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/left-brain-right-brain.jpg